The double deportation
From Koper (Capodistria) prison to forced labour in Neuengamme
During the Second World War, Koper prison represented one of the main transit centres for political prisoners arrested in territories of the former Yugoslavia which were under Italian control1.
Arrests and trials
The victims of this double deportation were in many
cases young people, apprehended by the Italian authorities during round-ups and
arrested during 1943. For example, a particularly extensive round-up took place
in Sušak in the first days of May. According to an eye-witness, the Italian authorities were looking for
those responsible for having distributed some leaflets in the town, which was occupied2. Support for the
liberation movement in Sušak was growing, and anti-fascist propaganda
initiatives had become more frequent during the preceding months3. In the
space of a few days many students and
young workers were arrested by the
carabinieri or the Sušak police, often picked on the street, taken from
their place of work (for example from the local paper mill or shipyard) or from
their homes at night. Some tried unsuccessfully to escape, as one detainee
remembers: "I had heard that mass arrests were taking place in Sušak,
particularly among my companions, so I ran away from home, but I had not even
got as far as Sv. Ana near Sušak when I
was arrested by five carabinieri "4.
At
the outset the detainees were held in local police stations. According to
available accounts, during this first
period of detention they were the victims of violence and ill-treatment.
Accused of supporting the partisan movement, they were subjected to harsh
interrogations, aimed at forcing them to admit their guilt and at gathering
information. Evidence shows that a
detainee would be questioned "to ascertain whether or not he was a
member of the liberation movement, whether he had links with the partisans, if
he had helped them, who his contacts in Sušak were, and where and when were their 'secret' meetings
held. He was asked to indicate the names of
the partisans in Sušak and surrounding areas, and was asked which of
their sympathisers he was able to
recognise”5.
After a few weeks the detainees were brought to justice, often during major collective trials during which dozens of accused persons appeared before the bench. Some of the trials that took place during 1943 were particularly impressive and contributed significantly to filling the cells of Koper prison. Among them, for example, was the hearing held in front of the Military Court in Fiume, which opened on 7 July 1943. 28 of the 79 accused had been on the run, "all charged (under Article 5 of the Regulation dated 3 October 1941) with subversive propaganda because, from the last months of 1942 to the beginning of May 1943, they had supported the activities of bands of rebels in the settlements of Sussa, Bascavalle di Vegli, Skrljevo, and Svilno di Sebenico"6. The trial lasted three days and led to convictions ranging from one to more than ten years in prison. As often happened, even some of those who had been acquitted were held in prison7. The first destination for all was the prison in Koper.
In Koper prison
The building that housed the Koper prison dated
back to the early 19th century. Built as a detention centre during the period
of Austro-Hungarian rule, it was put to the same use by the Kingdom of Italy
under Fascism, following which it became an important transit centre for people bound for Italian prisons during the
Second World War.
The proximity of Koper prison to the occupied
territories allowed prisoners to maintain contact with their families in some way
or other. As long as those arrested remained in local gaols, parents, brothers,
sisters and spouses were able to organise a delivery of food and other
necessities several times a day. As far
as possible, efforts were made to continue this
support even after the move to Koper. These occasions were used, despite
numerous difficulties, to check up on
the conditions under which interned relatives were being held. However, their
meetings remained limited and took place in the presence of the prison guards,
who were authorised to prohibit the use of the Croatian language8.
One means of communication was by way of postcards, which the prisoners were allowed to send occasionally to relatives and friends. Although subject to censorship, they did allow, up to a point, the families of the detainees to be informed as to their state of well-being and their movements. In this way it was possible to learn of their transfer to Germany, from where, until the last phase of the conflict, they managed to send their news.
From
Koper to Neuengamme
On 8 September 1943, the day of the
armistice between Italy and the Allies, they were still locked up in the cells
at Koper. There is some confusion as
to the events that took place during thehours and days which followed,
and the versions given by survivors do not always tally. According to one
account, on 8 September about eighty internees were transferred to Florence9, while between 9 and 10 September, a popular movement led to the release of
some local prisoners10. The German forces arrived in the city about this time.
On 13 September about 350 prisoners from Koper prison were loaded onto trains by German police forces and deported to Germany11. The wagons departed from Trieste, to where the detainees had been transferred by sea on 11 September12. The female prisoners were instead moved to Trieste on 17 September and were subsequently released13.
One of the survivors describes this
transfer and his arrival in Germany in
the following words: "The attempt
to escape with the help of the citizens of Koper failed, so on 13 September the
Germans took us to Postumia, then on to
Ljubljana, Fürstenberg and Berlin, and from there to Hamburg, to Neuengamme.
During the trip we were tortured,
for example at Fürstenberg we were forced to
engage in physical exercise for the entire day"14. According to
the same witness, their stay in the Fürstenberg prisoner of war camp (most
likely Stalag III-B) lasted six days, before they were transferred to their final
destination: the Neuengamme concentration camp15.
The documentation held by the International Tracing Service confirms the route given in these accounts, even if the dates of arrival vary slightly. Some registration cards give the departure date as 13 September and the arrival in Neuengamme on the 24th of the same month16. Other internees were instead registered as being present in Neuengamme only on 27 September17.
The main site
of the Neuengamme concentration camp was on the Elbe, just outside
Hamburg. It consisted of a system of
satellite camps (totalling 85 by the end of the war), established primarily to
support important military industrial
projects with the internees as a labour
force. According to recent studies, about 40,000 forced labourers, including
13,000 women, were employed in the satellite camps of Neuengamme18.
The Yugoslav civilians were spread out between the main camp and the various satellite camps, such as at the Druttee ironworks or at Braunschweig19. Working and living conditions were particularly harsh. One of the victims of double deportation recalled that: "At Neuengamme we had to load wagons with clay and four of us had to push them, and in the late afternoon, from 4 to 5, we had to stand in the worst cold imaginable to be counted. It wasn't just a case of counting us,they tortured us: we were lightly dressed and shivering from cold "20. In the following months the Koper prisoners were further dispersed and their destinies differed. Some were transferred to other camps, others were sent to remove bomb damage debris in cities such as Hamburg21.
The
evacuation and the fate of the internees
In April 1945 the evacuation of the main camp of Neuengamme together with its the satellite camps was ordered by the Reich authorities. Between March and May of that year prisoner mortality rates rose significantly compared with the previous period. Internment conditions had worsened considerably and as early as the end of 1944 many internees' families had stopped receiving postcards from Germany. The operations that led to the closure of Neuengamme by early May 1945 brought about an exponential increase in the number of deaths resulting from hasty evacuation procedures, during which forced marches, trains and ships were used22.
Probably the most dramatic episode was
that which took place between the end of April and the beginning of May, when
about 9,000 prisoners were transported from the main camp to the Bay of Lübeck
and embarked on several ships. On 3 May the ships were attacked by the Royal
Air Force and two of them were sunk23. This episode cost the lives of about
6,600 internees, among whom were some who had been originally held in Koper
prison24.
It remains difficult to estimate how many survivors there were of the double deportation from Koper to Neuegamme. The testimonies collected a few months after the end of hostilities give a very unclear picture, due to the fact that at the time many people were still classed as missing. Some ex-internees were transferred by the Allies to Sweden, where they obtained medical assistance and from where - thanks to intervention by the Red Cross - they were able to resume contact with their families25. Others tried to return to liberated Yugoslavia, which they reached between June and July 194526. There were yet others who did not manage to return home until the end of August27.
Marco Abram (2018)
Đuro Đurasković, Nikola Živković, Jugoslovenski zatočenici u Italiji, Institut za savremenu istoriju, 2001, pp.78-79.
Statement made by Ivanka Ježić regarding Krunoslav Ježić, State Archives of Rijeka, Rijeka, Okružna komisija za utvrđivanje ratnih zločina - Sušak [District Commission for the Investigation into War Crimes - Sušak], HR-DARI-105, k. 14.
Request for a summons to be issued, State Archives of Rijeka, Rijeka, Okružna komisija za utvrđivanje ratnih zločina – Sušak [District Commission for the Investigation into War Crimes - Sušak], HR-DARI-105, k. 32. Sušak], HR-DARI-105, k. 32.
As in the case of Roko (Rocco) Boffo, cf. the testimony of Sofija Mustache, State Archives of Rijeka, Rijeka, Okružna komisija za utvrđivanje ratnih zločina - Sušak [District Commission for the Investigation into War Crimes - Sušak], HR-DARI-105, k. 14
Statement made by Marija Kučan regarding Anton Kučan, State Archives of Rijeka, Rijeka, Okružna komisija za utvrđivanje ratnih zločina - Sušak [District Commission for the Investigation into War Crimes - Sušak], HR-DARI-105, k. 14.
Statement made by Josip Zambeli regarding Emil Lopac, State Archives of Rijeka, Rijeka, Okružna komisija za utvrđivanje ratnih zločina - Sušak [District Commission for the Investigation into War Crimes - Sušak], HR-DARI-105, k. 31. According to Dinko Brazzoduro's statement regading Ban Kazimir, transportation to Florence was organized the day before, on 7 September, cf. State Archive of Rijeka, Rijeka, Okružna komisija za utvrđivanje ratnih zločina - Sušak [District Commission for the Investigation into War Crimes - Sušak], HR-DARI-105, k. 19.
Statement made by Dinko Brazzoduro regarding Ćedomir Vranić, State Archive of Rijeka, Rijeka, Okružna komisija za utvrđivanje ratnih zločina - Sušak [District Commission for the Investigation into War Crimes - Sušak], HR-DARI-105, k. 32.
Marc Buggeln, Slave Labour in Nazi Concentration Camps, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2014, pp.1-2.
Statement made by Dinko Brazzoduro regarding Emil Lopac, State Archive of Rijeka, Rijeka, Okružna komisija za utvrđivanje ratnih zločina - Sušak [District Commission for the Investigation into War Crimes - Sušak], HR-DARI-105, k. 31; International Tracing Service ITS, Bad Arolsen, DE ITS 1.1.30.0 Archivnummer: 82138886.
Statement made by Dinko Brazzoduro, State Archives of Rijeka, Rijeka, Okružna komisija za utvrđivanje ratnih zločina - Sušak [District Commission for the Investigation into War Crimes - Sušak], HR-DARI-105, k. 14.
The workers' re-education camps (AEL) were set up in 1940 by the Gestapo in order to re-educate individuals accused of acts of industrial sabotage or who, for some reason, were held to be “reluctant” to work. In effect, these camps were also a means of exploiting forced labour. It has been estimated that in Germany and the German-occupied territories around 200 Arbeitserziehungslager had been set up in which around 500,000 people had been imprisoned.
During the Second World War the Germans established prisoner of war units known as Bau-und Arbeits Battaillon (shortened to B.A.B.). The B.A.B. were made up on average of 600 prisoners of war who were used as forced labour. The distinguishing feature of these forced labour units was that they were mobile; unlike the prisoners who were being held in the Stalag, these workers were not stationed in a specific location but were moved around according to necessity.
The I.G. Farben Company was founded in 1925 from the merger of several different German industries. During the Second World War it was the main producer of chemicals for Nazi Germany. I.G. Farben made more use of forced labour than any other industry, particularly during the construction of the plants at Auschwitz. The directors of I.G. Farben were among the accused at the Nuremberg Trials of 1947/48. At the end of the war the decision was taken to split up the industry into its original component parts.
The Arbeitskommando were work camps detachments for prisoners who had been captured by the Germans. Usually made up of a few hundred prisoners, they were set up near to places of employment (factories, mines, agricultural establishments etc.). They were run from a central Stalag (prisoner of war camp), which may have been responsible for hundreds of work detachments. The work detachments for Allied prisoners of war were visited on a regular basis by representatives of the Red Cross.
The Military Work Inspectorate was set up in October 1943 with the aim of organising a workforce which was to construct territorial defences for the Italian Republic of Salò and repair the damage caused by air raids. Known as the “Organizzazione Paladino” (Paladino Organisation) after its founder and commanding officer, and operating in strict collaboration with, and at times directly employed by, the Germans, it took on several tens of thousands of workers.
The Todt Organisation was begun in Germany at the end of the 'Thirties with the aim of setting up a workforce which would build military defences. The idea of Fritz Todd, who was also its director until his death in 1942, during the war it exploited forced labour in German-occupied countries. In Italy it played a fundamental role in the construction of defences along the Appenines in support of the Wehrmacht, employing tens of thousands of men.
Born in Scilla (Reggio Calabria) in 1890, he volunteered for the Corps of Engineers as a telegraphist in 1907. In 1908 he rose to the rank of sergeant, a rank he held throughout the War in Libya. In 1914 he was promoted to the rank of second lieutenant and during the First World War he was made captain.
Afterwards he remained in the Armed Forces and in 1932 he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant colonel. In 1936 he took part in the War in Ethiopia, during which he was promoted to the rank of colonel.
In the Second World War, he returned to Italy after participating in the Greek campaign and was assigned to the Bolzano Corps. In 1942 he was promoted to brigader general. After the armistice he joined the Italian Social Republic for which he created the Military Labour Inspectorate.
He finally retired in 1945 and in 1970 he was awarded the honorary grade of major general.
He died in 1974.
Fritz Sauckel, born in 1894, was a local Nazi party official. In 1942 he was nominated plenipotentiary for the organisation of work throughout all the German-occupied territories. In practice, he was responsible for the compulsory engagement of forced labour. In Italy his organisation tried to round up hundreds of thousands of men to send to the German Reich, with scarce results. He was tried at Nuremberg and condemned to death, the sentence being carried out in 1946.
Albert Speer, born in 1905, was an architect who enjoyed an excellent personal relationship with Adolf Hitler. Even though he was not an ardent Nazi, he was the brains behind the staging of the Party parades, thereby assuring for himself the esteem and trust of the dictator. In 1942, after the death of Fritz Todt, he was put in charge of the Ministry of Arms and Munitions, which oversaw the Todt organisation. He was tried at Nuremberg and condemned to twenty years imprisonment. He died in London in 1981.
A German prisoner of war camp. The living conditions in the Stalag varied considerably according to the nationality of the prisoners (Allied, Russian, Italian military internees, etc.)
Fritz Todt was a German engineer who was responsible, in the 'Thirties, for building the motorway system as desired by Hitler. At the end of the 'Thirties he set up the Todt Organisation, with the aim of supplying forced labour to be used in the building of defences along the French border. During the war his organisation oversaw the use of forced labour in the occupied territories. He died in a plane crash in 1942.
The Gemeinschaftslager, like the Wohnlager, were unsupervised camps for foreign workers, while the Arbeitslager were supervised. Generally speaking, the concept of forced labour is applied only to the latter, but at the present time historians are undoubtedly tending to review the concept of forced labour, extending it to include work situations which are apparently free but in reality are forced. More specifically, the current discussion tends to be orientated towards a concept of forced labour which includes these three distinctive elements:
- from a legal point of view, it is impossible for the worker to dissolve the relationship with his employer
- from the social point of view, the possibilities of significantly influencing employment conditions are limited
- there is a high mortality rate, which indicates a higher than average workload and a provision of means of sustenance below the necessary requirements.
See: [https://www.bundesarchiv.de/zwangsarbeit/geschichte/auslaendisch/begriffe/index.html]
The workers' re-education camps (AEL) were set up in 1940 by the Gestapo in order to re-educate individuals accused of acts of industrial sabotage or who, for some reason, were held to be “reluctant” to work. In effect, these camps were also a means of exploiting forced labour. It has been estimated that in Germany and the German-occupied territories around 200 Arbeitserziehungslager had been set up in which around 500,000 people had been imprisoned.
During the Second World War the Germans established prisoner of war units known as Bau-und Arbeits Battaillon (shortened to B.A.B.). The B.A.B. were made up on average of 600 prisoners of war who were used as forced labour. The distinguishing feature of these forced labour units was that they were mobile; unlike the prisoners who were being held in the Stalag, these workers were not stationed in a specific location but were moved around according to necessity.
The I.G. Farben Company was founded in 1925 from the merger of several different German industries. During the Second World War it was the main producer of chemicals for Nazi Germany. I.G. Farben made more use of forced labour than any other industry, particularly during the construction of the plants at Auschwitz. The directors of I.G. Farben were among the accused at the Nuremberg Trials of 1947/48. At the end of the war the decision was taken to split up the industry into its original component parts.
The Arbeitskommando were work camps detachments for prisoners who had been captured by the Germans. Usually made up of a few hundred prisoners, they were set up near to places of employment (factories, mines, agricultural establishments etc.). They were run from a central Stalag (prisoner of war camp), which may have been responsible for hundreds of work detachments. The work detachments for Allied prisoners of war were visited on a regular basis by representatives of the Red Cross.
The Military Work Inspectorate was set up in October 1943 with the aim of organising a workforce which was to construct territorial defences for the Italian Republic of Salò and repair the damage caused by air raids. Known as the “Organizzazione Paladino” (Paladino Organisation) after its founder and commanding officer, and operating in strict collaboration with, and at times directly employed by, the Germans, it took on several tens of thousands of workers.
The Todt Organisation was begun in Germany at the end of the 'Thirties with the aim of setting up a workforce which would build military defences. The idea of Fritz Todd, who was also its director until his death in 1942, during the war it exploited forced labour in German-occupied countries. In Italy it played a fundamental role in the construction of defences along the Appenines in support of the Wehrmacht, employing tens of thousands of men.
Born in Scilla (Reggio Calabria) in 1890, he volunteered for the Corps of Engineers as a telegraphist in 1907. In 1908 he rose to the rank of sergeant, a rank he held throughout the War in Libya. In 1914 he was promoted to the rank of second lieutenant and during the First World War he was made captain.
Afterwards he remained in the Armed Forces and in 1932 he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant colonel. In 1936 he took part in the War in Ethiopia, during which he was promoted to the rank of colonel.
In the Second World War, he returned to Italy after participating in the Greek campaign and was assigned to the Bolzano Corps. In 1942 he was promoted to brigader general. After the armistice he joined the Italian Social Republic for which he created the Military Labour Inspectorate.
He finally retired in 1945 and in 1970 he was awarded the honorary grade of major general.
He died in 1974.
Fritz Sauckel, born in 1894, was a local Nazi party official. In 1942 he was nominated plenipotentiary for the organisation of work throughout all the German-occupied territories. In practice, he was responsible for the compulsory engagement of forced labour. In Italy his organisation tried to round up hundreds of thousands of men to send to the German Reich, with scarce results. He was tried at Nuremberg and condemned to death, the sentence being carried out in 1946.
Albert Speer, born in 1905, was an architect who enjoyed an excellent personal relationship with Adolf Hitler. Even though he was not an ardent Nazi, he was the brains behind the staging of the Party parades, thereby assuring for himself the esteem and trust of the dictator. In 1942, after the death of Fritz Todt, he was put in charge of the Ministry of Arms and Munitions, which oversaw the Todt organisation. He was tried at Nuremberg and condemned to twenty years imprisonment. He died in London in 1981.
A German prisoner of war camp. The living conditions in the Stalag varied considerably according to the nationality of the prisoners (Allied, Russian, Italian military internees, etc.)
Fritz Todt was a German engineer who was responsible, in the 'Thirties, for building the motorway system as desired by Hitler. At the end of the 'Thirties he set up the Todt Organisation, with the aim of supplying forced labour to be used in the building of defences along the French border. During the war his organisation oversaw the use of forced labour in the occupied territories. He died in a plane crash in 1942.
The Gemeinschaftslager, like the Wohnlager, were unsupervised camps for foreign workers, while the Arbeitslager were supervised. Generally speaking, the concept of forced labour is applied only to the latter, but at the present time historians are undoubtedly tending to review the concept of forced labour, extending it to include work situations which are apparently free but in reality are forced. More specifically, the current discussion tends to be orientated towards a concept of forced labour which includes these three distinctive elements:
- from a legal point of view, it is impossible for the worker to dissolve the relationship with his employer
- from the social point of view, the possibilities of significantly influencing employment conditions are limited
- there is a high mortality rate, which indicates a higher than average workload and a provision of means of sustenance below the necessary requirements.
See: [https://www.bundesarchiv.de/zwangsarbeit/geschichte/auslaendisch/begriffe/index.html]
The workers' re-education camps (AEL) were set up in 1940 by the Gestapo in order to re-educate individuals accused of acts of industrial sabotage or who, for some reason, were held to be “reluctant” to work. In effect, these camps were also a means of exploiting forced labour. It has been estimated that in Germany and the German-occupied territories around 200 Arbeitserziehungslager had been set up in which around 500,000 people had been imprisoned.
During the Second World War the Germans established prisoner of war units known as Bau-und Arbeits Battaillon (shortened to B.A.B.). The B.A.B. were made up on average of 600 prisoners of war who were used as forced labour. The distinguishing feature of these forced labour units was that they were mobile; unlike the prisoners who were being held in the Stalag, these workers were not stationed in a specific location but were moved around according to necessity.
The I.G. Farben Company was founded in 1925 from the merger of several different German industries. During the Second World War it was the main producer of chemicals for Nazi Germany. I.G. Farben made more use of forced labour than any other industry, particularly during the construction of the plants at Auschwitz. The directors of I.G. Farben were among the accused at the Nuremberg Trials of 1947/48. At the end of the war the decision was taken to split up the industry into its original component parts.
The Arbeitskommando were work camps detachments for prisoners who had been captured by the Germans. Usually made up of a few hundred prisoners, they were set up near to places of employment (factories, mines, agricultural establishments etc.). They were run from a central Stalag (prisoner of war camp), which may have been responsible for hundreds of work detachments. The work detachments for Allied prisoners of war were visited on a regular basis by representatives of the Red Cross.
The Military Work Inspectorate was set up in October 1943 with the aim of organising a workforce which was to construct territorial defences for the Italian Republic of Salò and repair the damage caused by air raids. Known as the “Organizzazione Paladino” (Paladino Organisation) after its founder and commanding officer, and operating in strict collaboration with, and at times directly employed by, the Germans, it took on several tens of thousands of workers.
The Todt Organisation was begun in Germany at the end of the 'Thirties with the aim of setting up a workforce which would build military defences. The idea of Fritz Todd, who was also its director until his death in 1942, during the war it exploited forced labour in German-occupied countries. In Italy it played a fundamental role in the construction of defences along the Appenines in support of the Wehrmacht, employing tens of thousands of men.
Born in Scilla (Reggio Calabria) in 1890, he volunteered for the Corps of Engineers as a telegraphist in 1907. In 1908 he rose to the rank of sergeant, a rank he held throughout the War in Libya. In 1914 he was promoted to the rank of second lieutenant and during the First World War he was made captain.
Afterwards he remained in the Armed Forces and in 1932 he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant colonel. In 1936 he took part in the War in Ethiopia, during which he was promoted to the rank of colonel.
In the Second World War, he returned to Italy after participating in the Greek campaign and was assigned to the Bolzano Corps. In 1942 he was promoted to brigader general. After the armistice he joined the Italian Social Republic for which he created the Military Labour Inspectorate.
He finally retired in 1945 and in 1970 he was awarded the honorary grade of major general.
He died in 1974.
Fritz Sauckel, born in 1894, was a local Nazi party official. In 1942 he was nominated plenipotentiary for the organisation of work throughout all the German-occupied territories. In practice, he was responsible for the compulsory engagement of forced labour. In Italy his organisation tried to round up hundreds of thousands of men to send to the German Reich, with scarce results. He was tried at Nuremberg and condemned to death, the sentence being carried out in 1946.
Albert Speer, born in 1905, was an architect who enjoyed an excellent personal relationship with Adolf Hitler. Even though he was not an ardent Nazi, he was the brains behind the staging of the Party parades, thereby assuring for himself the esteem and trust of the dictator. In 1942, after the death of Fritz Todt, he was put in charge of the Ministry of Arms and Munitions, which oversaw the Todt organisation. He was tried at Nuremberg and condemned to twenty years imprisonment. He died in London in 1981.
Fritz Todt was a German engineer who was responsible, in the 'Thirties, for building the motorway system as desired by Hitler. At the end of the 'Thirties he set up the Todt Organisation, with the aim of supplying forced labour to be used in the building of defences along the French border. During the war his organisation oversaw the use of forced labour in the occupied territories. He died in a plane crash in 1942.
The workers' re-education camps (AEL) were set up in 1940 by the Gestapo in order to re-educate individuals accused of acts of industrial sabotage or who, for some reason, were held to be “reluctant” to work. In effect, these camps were also a means of exploiting forced labour. It has been estimated that in Germany and the German-occupied territories around 200 Arbeitserziehungslager had been set up in which around 500,000 people had been imprisoned.
During the Second World War the Germans established prisoner of war units known as Bau-und Arbeits Battaillon (shortened to B.A.B.). The B.A.B. were made up on average of 600 prisoners of war who were used as forced labour. The distinguishing feature of these forced labour units was that they were mobile; unlike the prisoners who were being held in the Stalag, these workers were not stationed in a specific location but were moved around according to necessity.
The I.G. Farben Company was founded in 1925 from the merger of several different German industries. During the Second World War it was the main producer of chemicals for Nazi Germany. I.G. Farben made more use of forced labour than any other industry, particularly during the construction of the plants at Auschwitz. The directors of I.G. Farben were among the accused at the Nuremberg Trials of 1947/48. At the end of the war the decision was taken to split up the industry into its original component parts.
The Arbeitskommando were work camps detachments for prisoners who had been captured by the Germans. Usually made up of a few hundred prisoners, they were set up near to places of employment (factories, mines, agricultural establishments etc.). They were run from a central Stalag (prisoner of war camp), which may have been responsible for hundreds of work detachments. The work detachments for Allied prisoners of war were visited on a regular basis by representatives of the Red Cross.
The Military Work Inspectorate was set up in October 1943 with the aim of organising a workforce which was to construct territorial defences for the Italian Republic of Salò and repair the damage caused by air raids. Known as the “Organizzazione Paladino” (Paladino Organisation) after its founder and commanding officer, and operating in strict collaboration with, and at times directly employed by, the Germans, it took on several tens of thousands of workers.
The Todt Organisation was begun in Germany at the end of the 'Thirties with the aim of setting up a workforce which would build military defences. The idea of Fritz Todd, who was also its director until his death in 1942, during the war it exploited forced labour in German-occupied countries. In Italy it played a fundamental role in the construction of defences along the Appenines in support of the Wehrmacht, employing tens of thousands of men.
Born in Scilla (Reggio Calabria) in 1890, he volunteered for the Corps of Engineers as a telegraphist in 1907. In 1908 he rose to the rank of sergeant, a rank he held throughout the War in Libya. In 1914 he was promoted to the rank of second lieutenant and during the First World War he was made captain.
Afterwards he remained in the Armed Forces and in 1932 he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant colonel. In 1936 he took part in the War in Ethiopia, during which he was promoted to the rank of colonel.
In the Second World War, he returned to Italy after participating in the Greek campaign and was assigned to the Bolzano Corps. In 1942 he was promoted to brigader general. After the armistice he joined the Italian Social Republic for which he created the Military Labour Inspectorate.
He finally retired in 1945 and in 1970 he was awarded the honorary grade of major general.
He died in 1974.
Fritz Sauckel, born in 1894, was a local Nazi party official. In 1942 he was nominated plenipotentiary for the organisation of work throughout all the German-occupied territories. In practice, he was responsible for the compulsory engagement of forced labour. In Italy his organisation tried to round up hundreds of thousands of men to send to the German Reich, with scarce results. He was tried at Nuremberg and condemned to death, the sentence being carried out in 1946.
Albert Speer, born in 1905, was an architect who enjoyed an excellent personal relationship with Adolf Hitler. Even though he was not an ardent Nazi, he was the brains behind the staging of the Party parades, thereby assuring for himself the esteem and trust of the dictator. In 1942, after the death of Fritz Todt, he was put in charge of the Ministry of Arms and Munitions, which oversaw the Todt organisation. He was tried at Nuremberg and condemned to twenty years imprisonment. He died in London in 1981.
Fritz Todt was a German engineer who was responsible, in the 'Thirties, for building the motorway system as desired by Hitler. At the end of the 'Thirties he set up the Todt Organisation, with the aim of supplying forced labour to be used in the building of defences along the French border. During the war his organisation oversaw the use of forced labour in the occupied territories. He died in a plane crash in 1942.